Cumulative environmental impacts and integrated coastal management-the case of Xiamen, China

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Cumulativeenvironmentalimpactsandintegratedcoastalmanagement:

thecaseofXiamen,China

XiongzhiXuea,*,HuashengHonga,AnthonyT.CharlesbaMarineEnvironmentalLab,MinistryofEducation,EnvironmentalScienceResearchCenter,XiamenUniversity,Xiamen,China

bManagementScience/EnvironmentalStudies,SaintMary’sUniversity,Halifax,Canada

Received21March2001;revised8February2004;accepted9March2004

Abstract

ThispaperexaminestheassessmentofcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsandtheimplementationofintegratedcoastalmanagementwithintheharbourofXiamen,China,anurbanregioninwhichthecoastalzoneisunderincreasingpressureasaresultofveryrapideconomicgrowth.Thefirststageofanalysisincorporatescomponentsofacumulativeeffectsassessment,including(a)identificationofsourcesofenvironmentalimpacts,notablyindustrialexpansion,portdevelopment,shipping,wastedisposal,aquacultureandcoastalconstruction,(b)selectionofasetofvaluedecosystemcomponents,focusingoncirculationandsiltation,waterquality,sediment,thebenthiccommunity,andmangroveforests,and(c)useofasetofkeyindicatorstoexaminecumulativeimpactsarisingfromtheaggregateofhumanactivities.Inthesecondstageofanalysis,thepaperdescribesandassessesthedevelopmentofaninstitutionalframeworkforintegratedcoastalmanagementinXiamen,onethatcombinespolicyandplanning(includinglegislativeandenforcementmechanisms)withscientificandmonitoringmechanisms(includinganinnovative‘marinefunctionalzoning’system).ThepaperconcludesthattheintegratedcoastalmanagementframeworkinXiamenhasmetallrelevantrequirementsfor‘integration’aslaidoutintheliterature,andhasexplicitlyincorporatedconsiderationofcumulativeimpactswithinitsmanagementandmonitoringprocesses.q2004ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.

Keywords:Integratedcoastalmanagement;Coastalmanagementsystem;Coastalzone;Marinefunctionalzoning;Cumulativeimpacts;Cumulativeeffects;Environmentalassessment;Xiamen;China

1.Introduction

Themajorityoftheworld’spopulationlivesincoastalzones,combinedterrestrial-aquaticareasrevolvingaroundaland-seainterface.Suchareasfacemanyenvironmentalandmanagementchallenges,duetoacombinationofenviron-mentalimpactsthatariseinterrestriallocations,thosethattendtoariseinopenoceanareas,andthoseinherenttocoastlines,suchastheimpactsof‘land-basedsourcesofmarinepollution’.Thehighdegreeofcomplexityinthecoastalzonehasledtoanemphasisonintegratedcoastalmanagement(ICM)asagovernancemechanismfortakingintoaccountthevariousaspectsofhumanactivitiesandtheirmanagement(FAO,1998).

*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:þ86-592-2184161;fax:þ86-592-2181875.

E-mailaddresses:xzxue@jingxian.xmu.edu.cn(X.Xue);hshong@xmu.edu.cn(H.Hong);t.charles@smu.ca(A.T.Charles).

0301-4797/$-seefrontmatterq2004ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.03.006

Fromapracticalperspective,successful‘integrated’managementinacoastalarearequiresanunderstandingoftheenvironmentalimpactsarisingfromeachoftherelevantcoastalactivities(shipping,portdevelopment,wastedisposal,fishing,aquaculture,etc.).ThismaywellbeaccomplishedthroughEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIAs)fortherespectiveprojectsoractivities.However,(1)someindividualactivities,seenastoosmalltojustifytheirownEIAs,mayfailtobeconsidered,and(2)project-by-projectEIAsmayindicateimpactsthatareminorinthemselves,yetthetotalityoftheseimpactscouldbesignificant,evenunacceptable(especiallyiftheimpactsaccumulatenonlinearly).Forthesereasons,ICMneedstoincorporateaprocesstomonitorandassesscumulativeimpacts—toaddresstheimpactsofinteractionsamongactivities,andtheaccumulationofimpactsovertime(Clark,1996).AstheRamsarConventiononWetlands(2002)notes,“sustainableuseofcoastalresourcescanbeseriouslyaffectedbybothhuman-madeandnaturalperturbationof

272X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

coastalprocesses,includingcumulativeimpactsgeneratedbybothlargeandsmalldevelopmentprojects…”.

Thispaperexamineshowcumulativeenvironmentalimpactshavebeenconsideredinthecontextofintegratedcoastalmanagement,withinaparticularlychallengingcontext—thatoftherapidly-growingcityofXiamen,China.Thepaperalsoexploresthelessonsthatmightbedrawnforsuchendeavourselsewhereintheworld.

Xiamen,locatedonthesouth-eastcoastofChina,isfamousbothforitshistoryasoneofthecountry’searliestinternationaltradeports(Amoy)aftertheOpiumWar,andforitssubtropicalscenery—the‘GardenintheSea’.AspecialeconomiczoneofChina,Xiamenhasmanyofthecharacteristicsofafreeportandisbecominganattractivesiteforforeigninvestment.Xiamen’scoastalzoneisunderincreasingpressureasaresultofrapidsocio-economicgrowthandtheexpandinguseofcoastalresources.Indeed,Xiamen’scoastalwaters—theJiulongRiverEstuary,theWesternSeas,theSouthernSeas,theEasternSeasandtheTong’anBay(Fig.1)—havechangedphysicallyovertime,especiallyfollowingconstructionoftheGaoqi-Jimeidikein1956,whenXiamenIslandbecameapeninsulaconnectedtothemainland,withXiamenWesternSeaandTong’anBaybecomingsemi-enclosedbays.Furthermore,coastaleco-systemdegradationhasbeendrivennotonlybyphysicalandeconomicforces,butalsobyinadequateplanningandmanagement.

Xiamenhasexperiencedarangeofenvironmentalimpactsarisingfromtherapiddevelopmentofitsharbourandthemultipleusesofthatharbour,compoundedby

(a)thecoastal/aquaticnatureofthesituation,whichimpliestherelevanceofwater-basedtransportoftheenvironmentalimpacts,and(b)thestronglymulti-jurisdictionalnatureoftheimpacts.TheserealitiesarebynomeansuniquetoXiamen,butthecombinationoftheseisboundtocreateaparticularchallenge.ThispaperexamineshowthischallengehasbeenapproachedwithinaChinesecontextofveryrapideconomicchange.WebegininSection2withadiscussionoftherelevantmethodologiesusedintheanalysis.

2.Methodology:cumulativeimpactsandintegratedcoastalmanagement2.1.Cumulativeimpacts

ProposeddevelopmentprojectsinXiamenharbour,aselsewhereinChina,havebeensubject(since1979)tocompulsoryEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EditingCommittee,1994).However,asnotedintheprevioussection,asetofproject-specificEIAsmaynotbesufficienttodealwithcumulativeimpacts.Accordingly,anaccom-panyingassessmentofcumulativeimpactswascarriedoutforXiamen,inconjunctionwiththedevelopmentofaframeworkforIntegratedCoastalManagement(ICM)supportingthesustainabledevelopmentofcoastal/marineareasandresources.

ThemethodologyforanalysingsuchcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsisknownasCumulativeEffectsAssessment(CEA),orequivalentlyCumulativeImpact

Fig.1.DivisionmapofXiamenMunicipality.

X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283273

Assessment(CIA).Thegoalofthisapproach—referredtoasCEAfromhereon—istobroadenthesingle-projectenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)toexamine‘theaccumulationofhuman-inducedchangesinvaluedenviron-mentalcomponentsovertimeandacrossspaceinanadditiveorinteractivemanner’(Spaling,1997).CEAhasevolvedlargelyoverthe1980sand1990s,withcontri-butionstothefieldincludingtheworkofBeanlandsetal.(1986),BurrisandCanter(1997),Canter(2002),ContantandWiggins(1991),CooperandCanter(1997),Dammanetal.(1995),Sadar(1997)andSpaling(1994,1997).CoastalareasandwetlandshavereceivedsomeattentioninCEAanalyses—see,e.g.Brinson(1988),ChildersandGosselink(1990),ClarkandZinn(1978),DickertandTuttle(1985),Risser(1988)andVestaletal.(1995).

WhilethereisnouniversallyacceptedapproachtoCEA,componentsmayinclude(Parr,1999)aninitialscopingstage,thesettingofspatialandtemporalboundariesfortheanalysis,theidentificationof‘valuedecosystemcom-ponents’(VECs)andindicators,theidentificationofthesourcesofimpactsandthepathwaysthroughwhichimpactsarelikelytooccur,andtheassessmentand/orpredictionofimpactsontheVECsarisingthroughtheidentifiedpathways.Inaddition,anyEIAmayeventuallyleadto(a)recommendationsonacceptabilityofanactivityandminimising,eliminatingoroffsettingadverseeffects,(b)amanagementplantoaccomplishthesemeasures,and(c)amonitoringprogram.

Theexaminationofcumulativeimpactsreportedoninthispaperincludedinitialscopingandboundary-setting,andthenfocusedoncertainofthecomponentsnotedabove:1.Identificationoftheunderlyingsourcesofenvironmentalimpacts(i.e.thevariouseconomicsectorsandhumanactionscausingimpacts)emphasizedoverallgrowth,thechangingtypologyofindustry,thechangingspatialdistributionofindustry,portsandshipping,landreclamation,aquacultureandwastedisposal,alongwithothersmallersources.Itwasrecognizedthatcumulativeimpactsfromthesesourcescouldarisethroughvaryingpathways(seeVestalandRieser,1995,p.21),notablyby‘persistentadditionsfromoneprocess’(i.e.accumulatedimpactsfromasinglesource)or‘compoundingeffectsinvolvingtwoormoreprocesses’(i.e.theeffectofimpactsfrommultiplesources).

2.Identificationofthemajorcategoriesofimpacts(whichmaybeseenasproxiesforthe‘valuedecosystemcomponents’)wascarriedoutusinganecologicalapproach,inthesensethatthemajorenvironmentaldisturbances,causedbyeconomicdevelopmentimpact-ingonXiamen’scoastalwaters,wereassumedtobereflectedintheecologicalelementsofthesystem,notablyphysical,chemicalandbiologicalaspects(HongandXue,1996).Specifically,theanalysisidentifiedfivemajorbiophysicalorecologicalcategories:(1)circulationandsiltation,(2)waterquality,

(3)sediment,(4)thebenthiccommunity,and(5)thestateofmangroveforests.

3.Assessmentoftheanthropocentrically-inducedimpactsthemselves(usingthesetofcategoriesabove)includedboththeaggregateimpactsofrelevantactivitiesthatoccursimultaneouslyinthesystem,andtheaccumulationofimpactsovertime(i.e.thosecumulativeimpactsthataretemporally-oriented).Theseaspectswereassessedusingcertainkeyindicators—e.g.variouschemicalparameterswereincluded,relatingtowaterqualityandthestateoftheoceanbedandofmarineorganisms.Inadditiontogenerally-applicableindicators,someindicatorsofspecialinterestwereincludedintheanalysis,suchasthoserelatingtotheparticularspeciesSousachinensis,Egret,Lanceletandmangroves(althoughnotallofthesearediscussedinthepresentpaper).Thevariousindicatorswereanalysedwithallowancefordelaysintheappearanceofcumulativeeffects,dependingonthelevelsofresistance,inertia,adapta-bilityandresponsetoenvironmentalchangeoftherelevantorganisms.Theanalysiswasbasedonacompilationofhistorical(secondary)socio-economicandecologicaldata(HongandXue,1996)ratherthanecological,causalorpredictivemodelling.Accordingly,theidentificationofmajorcat-egoriesofecologicalimpacts,thechoiceofindicatorsandthereportingonchangesinthoseindicatorsovertimewerebasednotonmodeloutputsbutratheronmoreinformalanalyses.Furthermore,whilecertainpathwaysforimpactswereapparentfromacloseexaminationoftheXiamencontext,rigorousanalysisofthecausalconnectionsbetweensourcesandimpactswasnotundertaken.Inparticular,theanalysisdidnotindicatewhichimpactswere‘additive’andwhichinvolved‘interactive’(magnifyingand/orsynergis-tic)accumulation,recognizingthatcumulativeimpactsmaybeduesimplytothesumofmanyimpacts,ortothemorecomplexnonlinearinteractionamongthoseimpacts.Finally,intermsofwhatwasnotincludedintheexaminationofcumulativeimpacts,theEIAcomponentsnotedearlier(providingrecommendations,developingmanagementplansandimplementingmonitoring)werelefttolaterinthepaper,wheretheyariseintheIntegratedCoastalManagementframework(seebelow).2.2.Integratedcoastalmanagement

TheWorldBank(2002)viewsIntegratedCoastalManagement(ICM)asseekingto“maximizethebenefitsprovidedbythecoastalzoneandtominimizetheconflictsandharmfuleffectsofactivitiesonsocial,culturalandenvironmentalresources”through“…aninterdisciplinaryandintersectoralapproachtoproblemdefinitionandsolutions”involving“aprocessofgovernancethatconsistsofthelegalandinstitutionalframeworknecessarytoensure

274X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

thatdevelopmentandmanagementplansforcoastalzonesareintegratedwithenvironmentalandsocialgoals,andaredevelopedwiththeparticipationofthoseaffected.”

Cicin-SainandKnecht(1998)focusonICMas“acontinuousprocessbywhichdecisionsaremadewithinasuitablecoastalmanagementsystem”,onethatinvolves“blendingtogetherscience,socialscienceandtechnologicalstudies,ontheonehand,withdevelopmentofsuitablepolicies,planningandprograms,ontheotherhand”ThelatteremphasizesthatICMspecificallyincorporatesaninformationandanalyticalstage(through“science,socialscienceandtechnologicalstudies”)withapolicy-orientedstage.Inthislight,assessmentofcumulativeimpactsfitswellwithinthephilosophyofICM,providingtherequiredfactualandanalyticalfoundationforevaluatingimpli-cationsofalternativedecisions.

InexaminingXiamen’sapproachtoICM,thispaperusesamethodologicalframeworkbasedonCicin-SainandKnecht’s(1998)conceptionofthepracticeofICMasinvolvingfiveformsof‘integration’:

†IntersectoralintegrationisfundamentaltothenatureofICM,involvingcoordinatedmanagementofthevarioussectorsofcoastalactivity,suchasfisheries,aquaculture,shipping,ports,tourism,etc.;

†Intergovernmentalintegrationimpliesattentiontothevariouslevelsofgovernment,fromlocal/municipaltoprovincialtonational;

†Spatialintegrationinvolvesinparticularthemanyconnectionsbetweenland-basedandsea-basedactivitiesandinstitutions;

†Science-managementintegrationdealswiththemultipledisciplinesrequiredtounderstandcoastalissues,andlinkagesbetweenscienceandmanagementitself;

†Internationalintegrationariseswhencoastalpro-blems—suchasthoserelatingtopollution,fishing,shipping,etc.—crossnationalboundaries.Specifically,weexaminetowhatextenttheXiamencasestudyincorporatesthesefiveformsofintegration.(Notethatbothverticalandhorizontalintegrationareincludedintheabove,e.g.withintheintergovernmentalandintersectoralforms,respectively.)Withinthiscontext,wealsoexploreinter-relationshipsbetweencumulativeimpactsandICM.Incorporationofcumulativeimpactswithinanintegratedmanagementprocessprovidescriticalinputbyidentifyingandquantifyingmajorimpactstobetakenintoaccountinthemanagementendeavour.Atthesametime,ICMitselfcanbeaneffectivemanagingtoolfordealingwithcumulativeimpacts.Thepaperexplorestheseinter-relationshipsinthecontextofthecoastalareasofXiamen,China,examiningthemannerbywhichtheexistenceofcumulativeimpactshasinfluencedICMarrangements,aswellastheroleofanICMprocessinactuallypreventingormitigatingthosecumulativeimpacts.

3.SourcesofcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsinXiamen’sharbour

ThissectionbrieflysurveyssevenmajorsourcesofanthropogenicimpactsonXiamen’sharbourarea:overallpopulationandeconomicgrowth,thechangingcompositionofindustrialactivity,thechangingspatialdistributionofindustry,portsandshipping,landreclamation,wastedisposalandaquaculture.AlldatadescribedherearedrawnfromHongandXue(1996).3.1.Overallgrowth

Since1980,andespeciallyinthe1990s,Xiamenhasdevelopedrapidly,withanannualgrowthrateofmorethan20%inboththeGDPandthetotalpopulation.Between1990and1995,thepopulationoftraditionalresidentsincreasedslowly,risingfrom1.1to1.2million(anannualgrowthrateof1%)buttheimmigrantpopulationfromothercitiesorruralareasofChinaincreasedrapidlyfrom100,000to290,000,drivenbyjobcreationandneedsforadditionalmanpower.OnXiamenisland,suchimmigrantsnowconstitutealmost40%ofthetotalpopulation.3.2.Changingnatureofindustry

OnefeatureofeconomicdevelopmentisthechangingcontributiontotheGDPoftheprimary,secondaryandtertiaryindustrialsectors.LightandheavyindustriesinthesecondarysectorarethemajorcontributorstotheGDP,buttertiaryindustries—includingcommercialactivities,com-municationandtourism—aredevelopingmorerapidly.Itispredictedthatthemechanical,electronic,petro-chemicalandconstructionindustrieswilldevelopespeciallyrapidly,andthatincreasingnumbersoftouristsandpassengerswillvisitXiameninthefuture.

3.3.Changingspatialdistributionofindustry

Anotherfeatureofdevelopmentisthedensitydistri-butionofindustrialproductionandpopulation:thehighestindustrialproductionandpopulationdensityaredistributedintheoldurbanareasoftheXiamenIsland,especiallyalongtheeastcoastofXiamen’sWesternSeas.Haicang,situatedacrossfromtheoldurbandistrict(Fig.1),isplannedfordevelopmentintoanewmodernurbanareaandalargeindustrialinvestmentarea.MostnewdevelopmentprojectsarelocatedalongthecoastofXiamen’sWesternSeas,whichwillbethefocusofthispaper.3.4.Portsandshipping

PortandshippingindustriescontributesignificantlytoXiamen’seconomy.AsanimportantforeigntradecentreofChina,Xiamen’sporthostsshippingtomorethan60portsinover40countriesandregions.XiamenHarbouris

X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283275

envisionedasamulti-functioncomprehensiveportengagedinbothpassengerandcargotransportation.Thehandlingcapacityoftheporthasincreasedgreatlysince1990—from1.68milliontonscargoand45.4thousandcontainersin1990to11.4milliontonscargoand224.7thousandcontainersin1994,to16.4milliontonsofcargoand6,000containersin1998.Thisreflectsagrowthrateofaround10%forcargoandmorethan30%forcontainersannuallyovertheperiod1994–1998.Thereare77berthsconstructedorunderconstruction,ofwhich11berthsarecapableofhandlingvesselsofbetween10thousandand50,000tons.Notably,mostoftheberthsarelocatedalongthecoastlineintheWesternSeas,wherethepriorityeconomicfunctionhasbeendesignatedasportdevelopmentandtransportation.3.5.Landreclamation

InXiamen,aseriesofprojectshastakenplace—notablyintheWesternSeas—involvingreclamationofcoastalareas,byfillinginwetlands,diking,andbuildingdamsandotherbarrierstoexcludecoastalwaters.Thisreclamationoccurredlargelyinthe1950s,1960sand1970s,withtheGao-Ji,Ji-XingandMaluandikesconstructedandlargeareasreclaimedtomeetrequirementsfortransportationandlanduse(Table1).

Reclamationactivitiesdemonstratewellthenatureofcumulativeeffects:thevariousreclamationshavehadacumulativeimpactovertime,whichhasledtopotentiallydetrimentaleffects,e.g.acceleratederosion,unacceptable

Table1

ReclamationofXiamen’sWesternSeasYears

Projectname

Site

siltationpatterns,siltationofdrainageoutlets,lossoffishspawninggrounds,andhindranceofcommercialactivitiesdependentonnavigation.3.6.Wastedisposal

Theharbour,particularlytheWesternSeas,providesanimportantsinkforwastedisposal.Accompanyingtheregion’shighlevelofeconomicdevelopmenthasbeenanincreaseinland-basedindustryanddomesticwastewaterdischargetothesea,from49milliontonsin1985to90milliontonsin1994.Withenforcementofwastetreatmentandrecyclingwithinindustry,therateofincreaseinindustrialwastedischargeslowedorevenreversedwiththegrowingGDP,buttherehasbeenanincreaseindomesticwaste,withhighercontentsofnutrientsandorganicmatter.About80%ofthewastewasdischargedintotheWesternSeas.In1996,sewagetreatmentcapacitywasabout100,000tons/day,andonly40%ofland-basedwastewastreatedbeforedischargeintotheWesternSeas.Moresewagetreatmentplantsareplanned,andthetreatmentcapacitycouldreach350,000tons/dayin2005,atwhichtimemorethan80%ofsewagewillbetreatedbeforebeingdischargedintotheWesternSeas.Themostimportantpollutionsourcesatseaare(a)oilandgarbagedischargedfromdocksandvessels,and(b)organicpollutionfromaquacultureactivity.Oilpollutionincreasedfrom275tonsin1990to325tonsin1994,ofwhich55%wasproducedintheWesternSeas.Thewasteisflushedoutbythetidalcurrent,whichissemi-diurnal.

ConstructionBegun

Finished195619601972197619791978197919701979

Reclamationareaha.200020936723040090771977724821656056306260281865791

Acre30,00031,40010,08045060001350115028011581080720315908407090450930900428279086860

1955–1979

1980–1994

XinglinBayreclamationMalunBayreclamationYuandangLakereclamationDongdufishingdockJingkouBayreclamationDongyureclamationGaopureclamationZengyingreclamationShitangreclamationGaodianreclamationShuimenjiaoreclamationCailingreclamationPaitoureclamationSubtotal

HuoshaoyureclamationDongdudockProject1DongdudockProject2BondedareadockProject1CoastalroadSubtotalTotal

Jimei-XinglinMalunDongduDongdu

Jingkou-DongyuDongyu-JingkouGaopu-NingbaoshanWuzaiwei-HouweiGaoqi-Dianqi

Shuimenjiao-Chang’anShanwei-PaitouPaitou-Shuitou13

HuoshaoyuwestDongduXiangyu

Huyu-Zhouyu

OutsideYuandangdam518

1955195819701972

19

19821976191993

19831984199319941993

From:HongandXue(1996).

3.7.Aquaculture

MarineaquacultureinXiamendevelopedrelativelyrapidly,andby1994,aquacultureactivitiesoccupied18.28km2,includingshallowseas,inter-tidalflatsandreclaimedareas,accountingfor77.38%ofthetotalareaavailableforutilization.Thelevelofaquacultureproductionwas29,120tonsin1994,outofatotalaquaticproductionof69,030tons.Avarietyofenvironmentalimpactscanbeattributedtoaquaculture,largelyasaresultofhighbreedingdensitiesandpoordistributionofthefarmingactivity.First,wastewaterfromshrimppondsalongthecoasthasbeendischargeddirectlyintoseas,affectingwaterquality.Second,whenfisharerearedthroughcagecultureinshallowseas,thecombinationofresidualfishfood(droppingtotheoceanbottomwhenfeedinglevelsareexcessive)andfishexcre-mentproducessulfideswhichcannotonlydirectlypoisonfishbutalsoconsumelargeamountsofoxygeninthewater,whichalsocausesfishmortality.Third,underneathaqua-culturecages,therecanbearelativeabundanceofFe–Mnoxide;heavymetalsdepositinthesediment,oforganicmaterialandclay,topollutethebenthicmaterial.

Inthefollowing,therelevantindicatorsaredescribedundereachofthefiveheadingsabove.

4.1.CumulativeimpactsoncirculationandsiltationThereclamationactivitiesdescribedearlierproduceddirectimpactsongeomorphologyandreductionsinwatersurfacearea.Inparticular,thetidalflushingareadeclinedgreatly;since1955,Xiamen’sWesternSeasdeclinedinareaby57.9km2,or53.7%comparedtoitsformerstate.Thetidalinfluxvolumewasreducedby120millioncubicmetres.In1996,thewatersurfaceareaoftheWesternSea,atlowtide,wasonly22.5km2,subsequentplannedreclamationisexpectedtoreducethisareabyanadditional2.6km2.

Sincethedirectionandvelocityofthetidalcurrentarecontrolledbygeomorphology,indirectimpactsoccurredintermsofchangesinthehydrologicalcirculationpatternandsiltationvelocity.Asthetidalinfluxvolumewasreducedsignificantly,thetidalflushingcapacitywasweakenedandsedimentationprocesseswereacceleratedintheWesternSeas.Froma210Pbstudyin1985,thesedimentationrateatbothsitesoftheGao-Jidikeincreasedbetweentwo-andsix-fold,andtheareaswereseriouslysilted.Siltationoccurredrapidlyandthechannelshoaledup,becominganobstacletonavigation.AsshowninFig.2,comparingwaterdepthin1934andin1976,theSongyu-Gulangyuchannelwaterdepthwasreducedby10mneartheGulangyuside.Inordertomaintainthedepthofthechannelfornavigation,thefrequencyandcostofdredgingincreased.In1984,150,000m3ofdepositsweredredgedfromthechannelforthefirsttime.In1993,190,000m3weredredged,but2yearslater,160,000m3neededtobedredgedagain.Inotherwords,dredgingof80,000m3wasneededannually,onaverage.Itshouldbepointedoutthattheincreasingsedimentationrateinrecentyearswasalsocausedbyimpropercoastalconstruction,suchasreclamationwithoutcofferdam.Thereductionintidalflushingcapacityandtheincreasingsedimentationraterepresentlimitationsondevelopmentoftheportandtheshippingindustry.

4.Assessmentofcumulativeimpacts

Asnotedearlier,theanalysisofcumulativeimpactstookanecologicalapproach,focusingonthephysical,chemicalandbiologicalelementsofthecoastalecosystem,specifi-callyrelatingto:1.2.3.4.5.

circulationandsiltation;waterquality;sediment;

benthiccommunities;mangroveforests.

Thesecategoriesofcumulativeimpactswereassessedthroughkeyindicators,arisingeitherfromasetofmultipleactivitiesorfromaspecificactivitycontinuedovertime.

X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

Table2

ChangesinwaterqualityinXiamenWesternSeas(unit:mg/l)Year19901993–19941996

RangeAverageRangeAverageRangeAverage

DO5.20–7.236.10

4.98–8.076.55

7.70–8.087.88

CODMn0.46–2.981.04

0.62–3.301.22

1.87–2.382.04

Oil0.025–0.240.09

0.025–0.260.04

0.002–0.0030.003

Inorganic-N0.234–0.5750.358

0.137–0.8180.378

0.368–0.5390.452

Inorganic-P0.006–0.0460.017

0.006–0.0690.027

0.032–0.0480.038

S.S.

277

30–17470

98–409188

From:HongandXue(1996).DO:dissolvedoxygen;CODMn:ChemicalOxygenDemandbyPermanganate;S.S.:suspendedsolids.

4.2.Cumulativeimpactsonwaterquality

Asnotedabove,Xiamen’sWesternSeasreceive80%ofthetotalland-basedwaste.Theamountofwastedischarged,especiallydomesticwaste,isincreasing.AlthoughwaterqualityintheWesternSeasstillmeetsChina’s‘class2seawaterqualitystandard’,qualitydeclinesmightbeacceleratedastidalflushingvelocityandwatercarryingcapacityarereduced.Infact,suchdeteriorationseemsindicatedintheincreasesthathaveoccurredinthelevelofCODMn(ChemicalOxygenDemandbyPermanganate)nutrientsandtotalsuspendedparticles(HongandXue,1996).Incomparisonwithsurroundingwaterbodies,availabledataindicatesthattheWesternSeaswereatahigherlevelofCOD,nitrateandphosphate(Table2).4.3.Cumulativeimpactsonsediment

Cumulativeimpactscanbemanifestedindecliningqualityofmarinesediment,whichcanbeasinkforpollutants,thusrepresentinganhistoricalrecordofpollution.WhilerecentstudiesshowthatenvironmentalregulationinXiamen,leadingtoreductionofwasteloadingintotheseawater,hasresultedinimprovedcoastalwaterquality,itispossibleforcontaminatedsedimenttoactasanon-pointsource,withthepotentialtorelease‘inplacepollutants’,suchasnutrients,impactingthecorrespondingwatercolumn.

Astudyin1993(HongandXue,1996)showedthatthegeneraldistributionpatternoforganicpollutantsin

Table3

PollutantsinXiamenSeas(mg/kg)

WesternSeas

OrganicmatterSulfurcompoundsOilHCHDDT

RangeAverageRangeAverageRangeAverageRangeAverageRangeAverage

0.83–4.881.90

5.69–88317522–4030

0.0001–0.0010.0004

0.004–0.3110.05

Estuary

thesedimentintheXiamenSeasreflectsthelevelofpollutantdischargefromindustrialandurbansources(Table3).ThehighestconcentrationofDDTinsedimentwasfoundintheWesternSeasbetweenXiamenandGulangyuIsland,wherethepopulationdensityishighest.Thehighestconcentrationofpolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)isnearthedischargepointformunicipalsewageinYuandangLake.Finally,thehighestconcentrationofpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)insedimentwasfoundneartheDongduHarborandthenavigationchannel.ResultsshowedthatPAHsinsedimentarerelativelylow,buttendtoincreaseasaresultofportactivitiesandtheincreasingnumberofvesselsinthearea.Thegeneraldistributionpatternofpollutantsinthesedimentcorre-spondswithpollutantdischargesources,andindicatestheaccumulationofpollutantsinthesediment.

Bacterialpollution,indicatedbycoliformlevels,isseriousintheWesternSeas,andreflectsthelargeamountsofdomesticwastethewaterreceives.Withtheconstructionofsewagetreatmentplantsandregulationofwastedischarge,thetotalbacteriaandtotalcoliformcountsinthewatershowedaslightdecrease,butstillexceedthestandardvaluesforcoastalwater.Insediment,thehighestcountsofcoliformareinthesamplescollectedclosesttotheurbansewagedischargesites.

4.4.CumulativeimpactsonthebenthiccommunityCumulativeimpactsthatleadtodeteriorationofwaterandsedimentqualitymayalsoaffectthefloraandfaunaof

SouthernSeas0.65–2.101.263.8–16278

1.2–13.88.1

0.00006–0.00050.0002

0.003–0.0110.006

Tong’anBay0.11–1.570.993.4–53.831.31.1–2.41.9

0.00006–0.00050.0003

0.002–0.0040.003

EasternSeas––––

1.6-2.82.1

0.00003-0.00080.0003

0.002-0.0080.005

0.15–2.861.883.0–553187

3.9–11.47.6

0.00002–0.00090.0005

0.003–0.0190.011

From:HongandXue(1996).HCH:hexachlorocyclohexane,DDT:dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.

278X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

Table4

LevelsofpollutionandmajordominantspeciesintheZoobenthosCommunityoftheWesternSeasinXiamenLocationNearBaozhuyuDischargesiteofYuandanglake

Year1980198819801988

Songguchannel

19801988

Diversity(H)3.682.672.563.163.313.25

Uniformity(J)0.820.940.560.820.860.83

LevelofpollutionMediumMediumMediumMediumBalancedStateBalancedState

Topthreedominantspecies

Paxalacydoniaparadoxa,Poecilochaetusparatropicus,Haploscoloplossp.Poecilochaetusparatropicus,Haploscoloplossp.,AglaophamusdibranchisSaccellacuspidata,Haploscoloplossp.,EpisiphonkiaochowwanenseNuculakawamurai,TrigonothraciajinxingaeRange,Aglaophamusdibranchis

Saccellacuspidata,Aglaophamusdibranchis,Nassarusvariciferus

Neoxenophthalmusobscurus,Amphiopluslaevis,Amphioplusimpressus

From:HongandXue(1996).

Xiamen’scoastalarea,withimpactsinthebenthiccommunity(aswellasmangrovehabitat,discussedinSection4.5).InXiamen’sWesternSeas,thebottomconfigurationhaschangedovertime,withcoarsesandbeingreplacedbyfinemud,enrichedwithorganicmatter.Thecompositionofbenthicspecieshaschangedaccord-ingly,withincreasingdominanceofpolycheteworms(Table4).Highlevelsoforganicmatterinthesediment,andtheabundanceofpolycheteworms,areusuallyindicativeoforganicpollution.TherateofchangeinthebenthiccommunityoftheWesternSeasissuggestedinthesubstantialchangeindiversityanduniformityindicesovertheperiod1980–1988(Table4),comparedwithindexlevelsfortheSongGuChannel,ontheedgeoftheWesternSeas.

4.5.Cumulativeimpactsonmangroves

AclearimpactofhumanactivitiesincoastalareasofXiamenisthelarge-scaledestructionofmangroveforests.Historically,Xiamenhadavastareaofsuchforests,whichhadbothdirectutilisationvalueinforestryandfisheriesproduction,andthepotentialtoprotectcoastlinesandprovideavarietyofecologicalservices.However,rapiddevelopmentinthemangroveenvironmenthasleddirectlyorindirectlytotheiralmostcompletedestruction.Bycomparingremote-sensingimagesfrom1987and1995(Table5),itcanbeestimatedthat88%ofmangroveforestspresentin1987withintheXiamenareaweregoneeightyearslater(reflectingadeclinefrom179.3to20.8km2).Indeed,mangrovesinsomelocationswere100%destroyed;forexample,thoseinDongduwerelosttoconstructionoftheharbourwhilethoseintheYuandanglakeareawereremovedforhumansettlement.

isachallenge,mitigatingsuchcumulativeimpactsmaybeevenmoreso.Inseekingtoaddresstheseimpacts,itisimportanttonotethattheyarisenotonlythroughtheover-exploitationofnaturalresources,increasingpopulationandpollutantdischarges,butalsothroughcoastalresourceuseconflictsbetweensectorsandinadequatemanagementmeasures(Chuaetal.,1997).

InXiamen,thecapacityformanagingsuchimpactshasbeenenhancedbyIntegratedCoastalManagementinitiat-iveslaunchedin1994.ThesewereimplementedaspartoftheRegionalProgrammeforthePreventionandManage-mentofMarinePollutionintheEastAsianSeas(MPP-EAS),executedbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganisation(IMO)andsupportedbytheGlobalEnviron-mentalFacility(GEF)andtheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).OneofthemaineffortsoftheProgrammeistodemonstratetheapplicabilityoftheICMapproachinaddressingmarinepollutionproblemsthroughtwodemonstrationsites,onebeingXiamen,andtheotherBatangasBayinthePhilippines(Chua,1998).

TheXiamenDemonstrationProjectisthefirstinter-nationallyfundedpilotprojectfortheapplicationofintegratedcoastalmanagementinChina.IthassoughttouseICMtoavoidtheold,costlymodelof‘pollutionfirst,managementsecond’bytreatingeconomicdevelopmentandenvironmentalprotectionassimultaneoustasks.Thisapproachhashadsomesuccess.AsGESAMP(1998)notes:“ImprovedenvironmentalqualityintheRiverThamesin

Table5

ChangesinMangroveareasinXizmen

1987areas(km2)

WuzaiWeiDongyuHaicang

Qingjiao-HaicangHaicang-HoujingQianyu

Dongdu-XianyuYuandanghuxiditouEyuyuJiyuTotal

9.9110.83.328.210.916.53.34.59.9179.3

1995areas(km2)0.414.311.110000.82.220.8

%Decline9687704588100100100827888

5.Mitigatingcumulativeimpactsthroughintegratedcoastalmanagement

TheextentofcumulativeimpactsarisingfromXiamen’scoastaldevelopmentareclearfromtheabovediscussion.Althoughunderstandingandassessingcumulativeimpacts

England,BostonHarbourintheUnitedStates,andXiameninChinashowthatdetermined,co-ordinatedactioncanproducebenefitseveninlargeurbanareas,wheredevelop-mentandpopulationpressuresareconcentrated”.FourkeycomponentsofXiamen’sICMframework,contributingtothepreventionandmitigationofcumulativeimpacts,arebrieflydiscussedbelow.

5.1.Co-ordinatingmechanismforICM

WithguidancefromtheMPP-EASProgramme,Xiamen’sMunicipalGovernmentestablished(in1995)aninter-agency,multi-sectoralcoordinatingmechanismforintegratedcoastalmanagement,aswellasoperationalofficestoimplementICMprograms.TheintegratedmanagementframeworkisillustratedinFig.3.NotethattheXiamenMarineManagementandCoordinationCom-mitteeinvolvesthemunicipalgovernmentatahighlevel,withthefirstdeputymayorservingasdirector,andtheotherfourdeputymayors(inchargeoftransportation,agriculture,scienceandcityconstruction)servingasdeputydirectors.Committeemembersincludetheheadsofbureausforcityconstruction,science,environmentprotection,fisheries,etc.Withinthisframework,Xiamenhasestablishedpriorities,undertakencapacitybuildingtostrengthenplanningandmanagementcapabilities,developedasustainedenviron-mentalqualitymonitoringprogramandafinancialmech-anismtomobilisepubicandprivatefinancialresources,

280X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

andestablishedtheneededlocalordinancestolegitimiseinstitutionalarrangementsandpermitsystems.Thisstruc-turewouldseemtosatisfyCicin-SainandKnecht’s(1998)goalof‘intersectoralintegration’,providingameansforcoordinatedmanagementofthevarioussectorsofcoastalactivity.

5.2.LegislativeframeworkandenforcementmechanismsTheXiamengovernmentimplementedmarinelegis-lation,particularlytheRegulationonManagementofSeaAreaUse(Li,1999),asthelegalframeworkformanagingcumulativeimpactsanduseconflicts.Thisisamongthelocalregulationsenactedconcerningresourcemanagement,ecologicalenvironmentprotectionandtransportationman-agement,tocomplementnationallaws(Table6)—provid-inganillustrationofCicin-SainandKnecht’s(1998)‘intergovernmentalintegration’acrossthevariouslevelsofgovernment(fromlocal/municipaltoprovincialtonational).Thelegalframeworkseekstomeetseveralobjectives:(1)toestablishaunifiedmechanismwithcoordinationresponsibilitywithinthegovernmentofXiamen,(2)toredefinetheresponsibilitiesofvariousgovernmentdepartmentsinvolvedincoastalandmarinemanagement,(3)toestablishlicensing,chargingandpenaltysystemsforuseofoceanareas,and(4)toestablishaneffectivelawenforcementmechanism.Inordertostrengthenintegratedlawenforcement,asupervisoryforcewasformedwithinthemarinemanagementoffice,andrelevantdepartments(e.g.harboursupervisor,fisherysupervisor,waterpolice,andenvironmentsupervisor)

Table6

Ocean-relatedlegislationinXiamen

Developmentandutilization

RegulationsonlandmanagementRegulationsoncityplanning

Regulationonthemanagementofsand,soilandstoneRegulationonthemanagementofwaterwaytransportation

Publicnoticeonremovalofhouseholdsengagedinaquaculturefromthelocationofthenewshipyard

Regulationonaquaculturemanagementintheshallowseasandintertidalzones

RegulationontheuseandmanagementofseaareasMeasuresonmanagementofchargingseaareausesRegulationsoncoastlineplanningandmanagementEnvironmentalProtection

Regulationsonenvironmentalprotection

MeasuresonthemanagementofYuandanglagoonregion

RegulationsontheManagementofNatureProtectedAreasforChineseWhiteDolphin

MeasuresonthemanagementofnatureprotectedareaforWhiteEgretinDayuIsland

PublicnoticeonthereinforcementofmanagementofseaeelfishingintheSeaareasaroundXiamen

RegulationontheprotectionandmanagementofthemarineenvironmentmeasuresonthemanagementofLanceletnatureprotectedarea

From:Li(1999).

wereorganisedintoanintegratedlawenforcementgroup.Anumberofcoastaluseconflictsweresuccessfullyresolvedbythisgroup.Forexample,indealingwithinteractionsbetweenaquacultureandtransportation,con-flictswereresolvedarisingfromillegally-establishedfishfarmsinareasdesignatedforharbourdevelopment,andunregulatedeelfrygatheringinnavigationalchannels.Now,thenavigationchannelinXiamenharbourisopen24hdaily,bringingimprovedmaritimesafety.5.3.Scientificsupportmechanismlinkingassessmentandmanagement

Inimplementingthecoordinatingmechanismdescribedearlier,themainchangefrompaststructureswastheinclusionofaMarineExpertGroup,sopolicyandmanagementinterventionscanbetterbebasedonsoundscientificfindings,suchascumulativeimpactanalyses(seebelow).TheMarineExpertGroup—comprisingmarinescientists,legalexpertsandeconomists—wasestablishedbytheMunicipalGovernmentin1996,asameanstointegratescienceintopolicy-makingandmanagement.Therespon-sibilityofthegroupistoprovideessentialsocio-economic,ecologicalandtechnicaladvicetopolicymakersandtoprovidethebestavailableinformationthatwillminimisecostsandmaximisebenefitsassociatedwithaproposeddevelopmentproject.TheMarineExpertGroup,anditsroleintheXiamenICMframework,reflectwellCicin-SainandKnecht’s(1998)goalof‘science-managementintegration’,providingforinterdisciplinarystudiesandforlinkagesbetweenscienceandmanagementitself.

Since1996,severalimportantaccomplishmentscanbenoted,includingthefollowing:

†enactmentoftheXiamenMarineFunctionalZoningScheme(XMFZS),tobedescribedbelow;

†completionofacomprehensivemarineeconomicdevel-opmentplaninXiamen;

†establishmentofamarineenvironmentalmonitoringnetwork;

†improvementofthefinancialmechanismformanage-ment-orientedscientificresearch;

†operationoftheXiamenCoastalSustainableDevelop-mentTrainingCenter,promotingawarenessandcapacitybuildingwithemphasisonthepolicymakerandmanager.5.4.Marinefunctionalzoning:atoolformitigatingcumulativeimpacts

TheXiamenMarineFunctionalZoningScheme(XMFZS)hasbeenacrucialmeansfortheeffectivemitigationofcumulativeimpacts.Marinefunctionalzoningisdefinedhereasthezoningofnaturalresourceusesthroughanintegratedapproachtoconsideringecosystemandsocio-economicfactors.Azoningapproachseekstodeterminemulti-usepriorities,reduceuseconflicts

X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

Table7

Xiamenmarineusesbylocationandlevelofpriority

Dominantfunction

WesternSeasTong’anBayEasternSeasDadengSeas

From:RuanandYu(1999).

Shipping/portAquacultureTourism

Aquaticresourceenhancement

Compatiblefunction

Tourism/naturereserveTourism/naturereserve

Shipping/engineering/naturereserveShipping/tourism

281

RestrictedfunctionAquacultureWastedisposalAquacultureWastedisposal

andincreasethesocio-economicbenefitstosocietyasawholeobtainedfromthevarioususes,whilesustainingtheresourcebaseandecosystemfunctions(RuanandYu,1999).MarinefunctionalzoningisanimportantcomponentofICM,providingabaseformanagingmultipleuseprioritisationandcoordination,andforeffectivelyminimis-ingadverseenvironmentalimpactsthroughallocationofseaspacebasedonfunctionalcharacteristicsofagivenarea.Xiamen’sMarineFunctionalZoningSchemewasformulatedbytheMarineExpertGroupandacceptedbyXiamenMunicipalityinOctober1996.Itcoversanareaof314km2anda234kmlongcoastline,includingmarinewaters,islands,shorelinesandtheadjacentlandareasunderthejurisdictionoftheXiamenMunicipality.Prioritisationofusefunctionsisthekeytothezoning,withprioritiesdependingonthelevelofsocio-economiceffectsandassociatedenvironmentalimpactsofuses.ThelargespatialextentoftheMarineFunctionalZoningScheme,aswellasitsoperationalnatureinallocatingcoastalusesspatially,wouldappeartosatisfywellCicin-SainandKnecht’s(1998)goalof‘spatialintegration’(thatofrecognizingconnectionsamongland-basedandsea-basedactivitiesandinstitutions).ThescientificbasisforestablishmentofthezoningschemelayinassessmentsofthecumulativeeffectsofcurrentandpotentialactivitiesinmarineareasofXiamen.Basedonthisassessment,thezoningdefineduseprioritiesintermsofdominant,compatibleorrestrictedfunctions.The‘dominantfunction’isassignedtousesconsideredhighpriority,whilea‘compatiblefunction’designationisforthoseconsideredtohavenosignificantadverseeffectsonthepriorityuse.Finally,a‘restrictedfunction’appliestothosethatshouldbereduced,movedoutorclosedaltogetherduetotheirdetrimentaleffectsonthepriorityfunctionandotherfunctions.Zoningresultsforfoursub-areasareoutlinedinTable7.

Forexample,intheWesternSeas,wherethedominantfunctionisportdevelopment,landreclamationisstrictlyforbidden,basedontheimpactanalysesshownearlierrelatingtocirculationandsiltationimpacts.ThismovewillhelptomaintaintheWesternSeasinadeepenoughstatefornavigation.Tofacilitatethecompatiblefunctionoftourism(andnaturereserves),thereisarecognitionoftheimportanceofenvironmentalprotection,inkeepingwithresultsshownaboveonwaterqualityandmangroves.Thus,asporttrafficexpands,conservationmeasuresareneeded,includingastrictwaterqualitystandardtomeetnational

environmentallawrequirementsfornaturereserves.Suchmeasuresmeaninparticularthatmorefundingmustbeprovidedforwastewatertreatmentandformangroverehabilitation.(Itisalsorelevanttonotethatinthezoning,theinter-tidalareaofHaicang,onthesideoftheWesternSeas,wasdesignatedformangroverehabilitation,andDayuIslandwasdesignatedasanEgretConservationarea.)

6.Conclusions

ThispaperhasusedacasestudyofXiamen,China,toexploretheincorporationofcumulativeimpactanalysiswithinanintegratedframeworkforcoastalmanagement.TheparticularmotivationforthepaperlayintherealitythatXiamenrepresentsachallengingsituationofveryrapideconomicgrowthandcoastalchange,andthateventhoughareasonablyeffectiveenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)systemisinplace,EIAsareunlikelytoassessfullythethreattoecosystemsfromincrementaldegradation,asfacedbyXiamen’sWesternSeasasaresultofserialmarineengineeringprojectsanddramaticeconomicdevelopment.Thepaperfirstprovidedabriefreviewoftherelevantmethodologies,CumulativeEffectsAssessment(CEA)andIntegratedCoastalManagement(ICM),beforefocusingindetailonthesetofcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsinXiamen’sharbour.AnalysisofthesecumulativeimpactsincorporatedmajorcomponentsofCEA—scoping,bound-ary-setting,identificationofunderlyingsourcesofenviron-mentalimpacts,identificationofmajorcategoriesofimpacts(proxiesforvaluedecosystemcomponents),andassessmentofenvironmentalimpacts.Ontheotherhand,theanalysisdidnotfocusonecologicalmodellingorpredictiveapproachestoimpactassessment,andinparticulardidnotattempttodetermine,throughecologicalormodellingstudies,thecausallinksbetweenspecifichumanactivitiesandresultingenvironmentalimpacts.ThecumulativeimpactstudiesintheXiamenSeasreportedherewereusedtodevelopamarinezoningscheme(XMFZS),andtoprovideguidelinesfortheICMplanningprocess.AswithotherCEAanalyses,theresultsherecanbeusedtoassistregulatorsindecidingwhetheranincrementalchangeisacceptable,andtoincreasethecapabilityofregulatorstocontrolorinfluencesmall-scaleactivitiesandprojectsthatwouldnotbeconsideredundertheconven-tionalEIAprocedure.Inthissense,onecanarguethatCEA

282X.Xueetal./JournalofEnvironmentalManagement71(2004)271–283

isacrucialtooltobeusedwithinanICMprocess.Conversely,ICMprovidesaco-ordinated,integratedapproachtoaddressthecumulativeimpactsidentifiedthroughaCEA.CrucialtothisistheimplementationofinstitutionalandlegalarrangementsforICM(Chua,1998).Forexample,inthecaseofXiamen,theRegulationoftheUseandManagementofSeaAreafacilitateseffectivemarinemanagementbasedontheXMFZSzoningapproach.ICMandCEAshareincommonaninherentlyintegratedapproach.JustasCEAseekstobuildintoanassessmentframeworkallrelevantimpactsaccumulatingovertimeandspace,whateverthesource,sotoodoesICMattempttointegrate,withinamanagementframework,thefullrangeofcoastalactivitiesandinstitutions.Indeed,thediscussioninthispaperhasshownthatalltherelevantformsofintegrationoutlinedattheoutset—intersectoral,inter-governmental,spatialandscience-managementinte-gration—arefoundwithintheprocessesandstructuresinvolvedinXiamen’sICMefforts.Furthermore,eachoftheseformsofintegrationrelatesbacktooneormoreelementsofthecumulativeimpactanalysis—forexample,aparticularimpactmayberelatedtomultiplesectors,ormayrequiremultiplelevelsofgovernmenttoresolve.

Thus,withIntegratedCoastalManagementhavingbecomethestandardinstitutionalandprocesstoolfordealingwithenvironmentalanduseissuesincoastalareas,thispaperhashighlightedtheroleofcumulativeimpactsasaconsideration,andperhapsevenadrivingforce,withinanICMframework.

Acknowledgements

TheauthorsaregratefultotheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgencyforthefinancialsupportthatenabledXuetoundertakeapostdoctoralfellowshipatSaintMary’sUniversity,whichledtotheresearchreportedherein.WethankSaintMary’sUniversityforhostingthatfellowshipandothervisitsbythefirsttwoauthors.Charlesacknowl-edgessupportfromaPewFellowshipinMarineConserva-tionandfromtheNaturalSciencesandEngineeringResearchCouncilofCanada,grant#A6745.TheauthorsaregratefulforhelpfulcommentsfromPatriciaLane,PeterDuinker,twoanonymousrefereesandthejournaleditor,andforexcellentresearchassistanceprovidedbyTanyaWhite.

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